Monday, July 16, 2012

UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS’ LEARNING STRATEGIES AS AN INPUT CONTEXT TO DESIGN ENGLISH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY AT SMAN 8 KOTA BENGKULU


Shift in teaching and learning process from teacher-centered to learner-centered needs more various pro-student approaches.The approaches focus on students’ learning activities.In doing their  activities,students apply different efforts because of having different individual potencies. From these individual differences, they also learn in different ways. Understanding individual differences of students such as motivation, learning strategies, attitudes,   and   learning   styles   is   necessary   for   teachers   to   set   appropriate   instructions.   Students’  differences   in learning challenge teachers to prepare and apply various instructions with the same materials in order to gain learning objectives for all students. Teachers should have skills in classroom instruction for all students and in individualized instruction for each student.
Focus of this study is on understanding   learning strategies as a front line in learner-centered   approaches in teaching and learning English as a foreign language. The great reason as the background of doing this study is to maximize the implementation of school based curriculum of English in large class with mixed-ability learners. Large class with mixed-ability of English language in the context of teaching English as foreign language makes the   greatest   challenge for language teachers to have maximal and dynamic efforts to improve students’ communicative skills.  Understanding   students’   learning   strategies   possibly   contributes teachers’dynamic and interesting efforts to where conditions they apply classroom instruction or individualized instruction in teaching and learning process. These efforts would become practical guidelines to carry out students’ learning activities, and then intensively promote and develop students’ learning autonomy.
2. Research Objectives
This study investigated learning strategies of senior high schools’students in learning   English at SMAN 8 Kota Bengkulu. Objectives of the study were to find out the more frequently use of students’ strategies in learning English and to find out more frequently use of activities in each category of strategies in learning English as a foreign language in senior high schools in Bengkulu.

Saturday, July 14, 2012

SKRIPSI BAHASA INGGRIS AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTING WH-QUESTIONS AT THE SECOND YEAR STUDENTS OF SMAN 8 KOTA BENGKULU


The study of English aids students in the quest for more knowledge from many international sources. There are two media for language communication:
1.     receiving   the   message,   i.e., reading and listening,
2.    and sending the message, i.e., speaking and writing.
To give clear information in communication, writing and the use of a standard format for writing are needed. So, in the fourth semester student for the year Muhammadiyah University of Bengkulu, the students were required to write an opinion paragraph on medical ethics based on a reading passage chosen from the Internet. Every student would receive 30 marks as part of the semester’s course work if they wrote it regardless of the quality of their writing. However, they had not been trained to construct a well-organized paragraph. The   researchers   realized that it is important   to   improve students’   skills   in   writing standard paragraphs because it is an important   tool   in   their   profession   and for further education. Therefore, we performed a study to evaluate the writing skills of these first-year medical students in writing a paragraph in English and identified their errors in order to develop guidelines for correction and improvement of their writing skills.


SKRIPSI BAHASA INGGRIS INTERTEXTUALITY IN BENGKULU NEWSPAPER OPINION ARTICLES ON EDUCATION


One of features  found in Indonesian newspapers especially in bengkulu newspaper is a space specifically dedicated to articles discussing ongoing issues in Indonesia. The topic covered by this feature varies and one of them is on educational issues, both nationally and regionally related issues. So, this feature becomes an open medium for its readers to discuss ongoing educational issues. However, it is also important to note   that, to a certain degree, this feature is potential to influence the public opinion either to sustain or  to challenge the current practice.
There are various linguistic aspects which may be investigated in such articles.One of them is its intertextuality. It is an aspect which has been least paid attention to. In fact, intertextuality is always present in any piece of writing. Therefore, it is interesting to investigate the intertextuality in the opinion articles on education in Bengkulu newspapers.The term intertextuality has an extensive meaning and use. It is closely related to the term text itself. When the term text is understood in general semiotics, it may refer both linguistic and non-linguistic text. However, this study is focused on linguistic text and what is meant by intertextuality should be understood from the beginning as linguistic intertextuality then. The study itself is focused on investigating its types, functions, and discursive practice. Intertextuality is not a matter of decorating a text with other texts and its application in a text does not bear any underlying meaning. It is not used by a writer   only   to   illuminate   his/her   text   without   bearing   a   certain   meaning.   The use of intertextuality does have its meaning in text though the meaning itself is not consciously construed by the writer. Even, the reason stating that intertextuality is there because it is a common practice of a certain text indicates that there   exists   the   meaning.The meaning being displayed there   is   that   it   is   as common practice. Therefore, the meaning that emerges from the use of intertextuality in a text should be perceived differently from the lexical meaning of words.
The social meaning of intertextuality is construed in relation to a certain social practice to which a particular sort of text adhered. The behavior of how it is paradigmatically used across texts in the same genre is the major clue to disclose its social meaning. A scientific   journal   article   and   a newspaper article, though both are written on the same topic area, certainly differ in many respects. What makes them to each other different is its discursive practice.
People may talk about “a discourse of educational advertisement”.They certainly talk   about series of advertisement texts concerning with education. However, they do not talk only about the number of the texts, but also most importantly features shared by those texts. Since each feature brings with it a social-interactional meaning, its discursive practice constitutes its social practice.On the basis of the discursive practice of certain features,then,   people may talk about “a commercialization discourse in education”for instance. writer excerpts the text being intertextualized. And, finally, it is related to the textual function which is fulfilled by the intertextuality in the text. 

THE IMPROVEMENT STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILL BY USING GUESSING GAMES TECHNIQUE


As a professional teacher in the language teaching, especially the teaching of English as a foreign language, teacher mostly spend much of time on appropriate teaching methodologist for greater effectiveness in students acquisitions on English, designing, and implementing materials, test, and practice teacher are responsible to educate the students from little or no knowledge to sufficient English speaking environment. Most of the teaching technique before, found the teacher in the classroom by applying traditional and monolingual principle ways of teaching with unsatisfactory. In the classroom, the teacher must create the situation that can encourage real communication, many activities can be designed to make majors’ element lively. Games is one of the techniques that can be applied in teaching speaking because games in one of potential activity that gives students feeling of freedom to express themselves. Games are also potentially useful to encourage students of interact with each other orally. 

Friday, July 13, 2012

Class of Word


In the all approach, word has been grouped based on the lexical meaning. In this situation we got the terminology of noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
MacFadyen (2008) states that, traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection.
Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next.
 In the modern approach, word has been classification based on the word classes in the nation this classification could be reduce the ambiguous of the word as in the ancient approach. Those words divided into two classes (1) Content words and (2) function words. Content words are the words that have the lexical meaning. The members of the content words are noun, personal pronoun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Whereas function words are the words which have a little or no lexical meaning but still have a function.

Good and Bad Grammar


There still remains a usage of the term grammar that we have not mentioned, in instances such as; she wrote me a nice letter,but her grammar was awful. Here the speaker is passing  a judgement on someone’s use of language. He is evaluating a piece of english usage againts some supposed norm, called ‘good english’or correct english. The norm is usually what is called ‘standard english’ or educated english usage.
            The use of double negation (They didn’t have none), for example : is not intrinsically ‘bad grammar’ it merely represent a non-standard english usage. Double negation may not be appropriate in the english of public communication, but in more casual or intimate circumstances among certain groups of english speakers it may well constitute a normal feature of english grammar (Jackson,1985:2)

The Scope of Grammar


In his definiton of the ‘science of grammar’, Bacon described the concern of grammar as ‘speech and word’. The linguistic study of a language , or variety of a language, is often said to comprise three components: phonetics/phonology, grammar,semantic. The three aspects of linguistic study are, however, not independent of each other.
1. Phonetics and phonology
Phonetics and phonology are both concerned with the pronunciation of language, how language sounds, the transmission of utterances through the medium of sound.
2.   Semantic
Semantic is the study of meaning. In a way, nearly all of language study is concerned with how language means. Semantic is often conceived as being wider in scope than lexicology, concerned not only with the meaning of words, but also with the meaning of sentences and with meaning relations between words and between sentences.
Language is sometimes viewed as the means by which meanings are transmitted in sound via the organising principle of grammar. The study of grammar is often subdivided into syntax and morphology, the former dealing with the structure of sentences, and the latter with the structure of words.

Wednesday, July 11, 2012

Lesson Planning



Every lesson and class is different, by mastering and creating your own lesson plan, it brings you one step closer toward having a better grasp of the content and methods you are about to teach.
A lesson plan is a structure for a lesson. The content depends on what the teacher wants to achieve in the lesson and how they hope to achieve it. Callum Robertson states that:
‘If you imagine a lesson is like a journey, then the lesson plan is the map. It shows you where you start, where you finish and the route to take to get there.’
This is particularly helpful for inexperienced teachers as they may want to produce very detailed plans, stating clearly what is happening at particular times throughout the lesson. However, as teachers gain experience and confidence they develop the ability to go into class with a short list of notes or even with the plans in their head and still manage to conduct the lesson sufficiently. This is also supported by many theorists as they argue that too much planning can make the lessons rather rigid and prevents the teacher from being flexible to the needs of the students.
Effective lesson planning is the basis of effective teaching. Teachers who create lesson plans must be aware of what grade level they are developing the plan for and record a time estimate to help time budgeting throughout the lesson. Almost all lesson plans contain instructional procedures in order to communicate the target material effectively, the required materials and anticipated problems for the students and the teacher. One of the most important reasons to plan is that the teacher needs to identify their aims. It is essential to express the concept in the aims and have clear and realistic goals as it provides a focus for the planning and can help prevent possible confusion. It also ensures that the lesson is well balanced and appropriate for class, gives the teacher more confidence and is a sign of professionalism.
Lesson plans that are not well organised or clear in their direction can be difficult to follow and may affect the students’ educational experience as a result of this. Many teachers are required to write their plans in advance. Teachers often rush through completing their lesson plan in order to hand it in to their superior; due to this, the teacher later suffers during the lesson when they attempt to teach from their plan because it may not be sufficient enough to adequately conduct the class.
The amount of planning and thought a teacher puts into their lessons really depends on how much they want the class to achieve. There are many different tools to help teachers prepare their lesson plan, this includes: planning books, templates, and forms.
Writing lessons requires organisation, and even if you use these tools to help deliver your lesson but you are not adequately organised, you may find that they do not help very much. Therefore, before you start the lesson there are a number of things to consider in order to help ensure that the lesson runs according to plan, such as, checking that you have your lesson plan, making sure that the equipment works, laying out all the relevant materials and aids so that they are easily accessible and running through your lesson plan before hand to make sure you have a full understanding of the target material.



Tuesday, July 10, 2012

Production and Reception Techniques for Teaching Pronunciation


       Pronunciation is the act or result of producing the sounds of speech, including articulation, stress ,and intonation, often with references to some standard of correctness acceptability Pronunciation is important. What do you think which make students get amazed of your English language when they hear you in speaking English? your grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation? The answer is the quality of pronunciation. What makes students interested in one language is firstly pronunciation. Moreover, good pronunciation skill can give you more self-confidence when you speak in front of class or the other place.
        According  Webster (1913) The act of uttering with articulation; the act of giving the proper sound and accent; utterance; as, the pronunciation of syllables of words; distinct or indistinct pronunciation. In here, I have a technique to present from David F.Dalton((1997) Training in EFL Teacher) Using Production and Reception Techniques for Teaching Pronunciation. David F Dalton (1997) there is tendency for us on production as the main problem affecting our learners. Most research however ,shows clearly that the problem is more likely to be reception (what you hear don’t hear ,and you can’t  say ).Moreover, if the “English “sound is not clearly received the brain of learners converts it into the closet sound in their own language. Using knowledge of our students and our ear in order to be aware of their pronunciation problem.


Sunday, July 8, 2012

SKRIPSI BAHASA INGGRIS : AN ANALISIS OF SPEECH ACT IN SHORT STORIES OF ISLAMIC MAGAZINE

AN ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ACT IN SHORT STORIES OF ISLAMIC MAGAZINE

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

A.    Background
There are many people who write literary work. People write literature to express their emotions and ideas. We find it in magazines and newspaper which belong to fiction such as short story. Furthermore, people read stories for pleasure, recognizing familiar experiences and feelings and escape into unfamiliar places and times. Literature is like a house with a great number of windows. As you learn about world, you learn about yourself. In short the reason why people read stories is the stimulation everyone's imaginations. They make our live larger by increasing our capacity to imagine.
Modern literary fiction in English has been dominated by two forms; they are novel and short story. Both are imaginative work and ideas of the writer. Author write short story with some purpose. Some of them are to tell about something to reader, to express their ideas or imagine, give illusion and also as entertainment. Because of that, author write short story in interesting from, in order to avoid the boredom of readers. So many ways and styles of the writer in presenting interesting stories such as by using kinds of words and sentences or can be called speech act. They should have control the text that would be written so the reader can understand.
To make their short story pleasure to reading, commonly they are very same dialogues among and in a character that is created. In dialogues, some character are speaking, they speak one another use sentences or to be more precise utterance, in making utterance speaker doesn't only speak but also has meanings and effect for listener. Speaker hope respond (can be answer or act) from listener. It is called speech act.
Because of that researcher interest to research about speech act.       
B. Problem
   The problems of this research were formulated as follow:
     1. What kind of speech acts are found in Islamic magazine "annida"
     2. How do author lose of speech act in Islamic magazine " Annida"
C.    Limitation of the research
The research would be limited in the analysis of speech act found in dialogues in short stories of an Islamic "annida" magazine
D.    Objectives
The objectives of this research are:
1.      Identify kind of speech acts in "annida" magazine
2.      Investigate how the author use speech acts in "annida" magazine
E.     Significance of the research
To gives contribution to the students of English department for increasing of their understanding.


CHAPTER 11
LITERATURE OF REVIEW

Everyone who learn history will know everything happened in the past through  reading books. He will get pleasure of recognizing familiar experiences and feeling and we can escape into unfamiliar place and times.
Another ways of learning history is through literature. It is also learning about history but the emphasis is on the language.
A.    Short story
Short story is a fiction extended by the author based on reality. Through ideas, emotion, desires and imagination to express impression of human life. Koesnosoebroto(1988) said that structurally, the short story must content itself with few characters, few incident, scenes, or episodes, few setting and it take place in a brief span of  time and it can develop only one or two characters with anything approaching fullness. It is pressed for time. In concluding, short story must content form of story such as characters, events, and setting. It is should be presented by author although in a very brief short story.    
B.     Speech act
1.      Definition of speech act
The study of speech act is the study how to do thing with utterances. In making utterance, speaker does not only speak but also has meanings and effects for listener. Speaker hope respond from listener. For example:
Jack     : "I will come to your house tomorrow"
Jenny   : "oh, yeah".
On example above, speaker only said to his friend "I will come to your house tomorrow". He does not add hiss utterance more specific. Whereas he can add sentence such as "you should be at home at five o'clock" or "you should serve me goodly". The listener may be confuses and cannot catch the intent of the speaker. Listener will interpret that it is just murmur of the speaker or more than that listener think every possible meaning besides utterance. Speech act was not an utterance that can pass after uttered by the speaker.  The utterance "I will come to your house tomorrow", implicitly means that the speaker would like to express her or his expectation for the listener after he or she uttered the sentence.
Austin in Hatim and Mason (1990) distinguished three different kinds of action which are performed when a language user produces and utterance:
Locutionary act,  perlocutionary act, and illocutionary act.
a.       Locutionary act is the action performed by uttering a well - form, meaningful sentences.
b.      Illocutionary act is the communicative force which accompanies the utterance, e.g promising, warning, conceding, denying, stating, ordering, etc.
c.       Perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance on the hearer/reader, i.e. the extent to which the receiver's state of mind/knowledge/attitude is altered by the utterance in question.
Austin in Malcolm (1977) distinguished the utterance in two group, constative and fer formative. Constative are statements which are not intended to record or import information about facts. For example "the king of France is Bald". Per formative are sentences in which the saying of the words can statue the performing of an action,for example "I name this ship the queen Elizabeth" as, uttered when smashing the bottle against the stern. In saying this sentence, the speaker actually performing the action of naming ship: from that moment the ship is named.
Ibrahim (1993) state that a sentence can be called a speech act of the sentence if it contains the following characteristic:
a. General structure of speech act
b. Proportional content can be stated by complement sentence from indirect from explicitly.
c. Illocutionary from cause.
d. Listener makes inference that the speaker has self-confidence or certain exception.
e. Change of interactional situation.
f. General structure of order of speech act is organized in pattern of discourse with certain variable.
g. Speech act is affective by instruction.
h. Speech act can be classified on grammatical structure. Types of proportional content and its of elocutionary force, function and original.

2.      Kind of speech act
Leech (1991) classified four categories of speech act, they are:
a.       Competitive is the purpose of illocutionary goal competes with the social goal,e.g ordering, asking, demanding, begging, commanding, requesting.
b.      Convivial is the purpose of illocutionary has the parallel coincides with the social goal; e.g offering, inviting, greeting, thanking, addressing, congratulating.
c.       Collaborative is the purpose of illocutionary is not concern to the social goals; e. g asserting, reporting, announcing, instructing, stating, teaching.
d.      Conflictive is the purpose of elocutionary purpose conflicts with the social goal, e. g threaten, cursing, accusing, reprimanding.

Austin(1965) classified classes of utterance according to their illocutionary force names:
a.       Exercitives are against a certain course, or advocacy of it or the giving of a decision in favor of : e. g order, sentence, command, fine, direct, grant, the exercising of powers, rights or influence.
b.      Commisives commit the speaker to doing something, but include declarations or announcements of intention; e. g promise, undertake, intend, plan, purpose,swear, etc.
c.       Behabitives includes the notion of reaction to other people's behavior and fortunes and of attitudes and expressions of attitudes to someone else past conduct or imminent conduct; e. g apologize, thank, congratulate, commend, welcome, wish, protest, etc.
d.     Expositives are used in act of exposition involving the expounding of views, the conducting of arguments and the clarifying of usage and of references.
e.       Verdictives consists in the delivering of a finding, official or unofficial, upon evidence or reasons as to value or fact; have obvious connections with truth and falsify as regards soundness and unsoundness or fairness and unfairness; e . g acquit, grade, convict, estimate, understand, analyze, describe, etc.
Searle in Lavinson (1983) categories of speech act as follows:
a.       Directives, which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something, requesting, questioning, for example: He put his bottom at the edge of chair. "why do you come late?" He bent his body towards me.
b.      Representatives, which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed, proposition, asserting, concluding,
He looks to the sky and say "he day be raining and we must go now".
c.       Commissives, which commit the speaker to same future course of action; promising, threatening, and offering, for example:
She stands beside her mother in the kitchen "what can I do for you,mam?"
d.      Expressive, which express a psychological state thanking, apologizing, welcoming, congratulating, for example:
I receipt a letter from my father "Thank a lot" I say to the post man.
e.       Declarative, which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate extra-linguistic institutions: excommunicating, declaring word, christening, firing from employment. For example:
The director looks at me terrify, He doesn't talk much as formerly. "I fire you from my factory:. He gives a letter to my hand.

  


CHAPTER III
METHOD OF RESEARCH
A.      Design
This is a descriptive quantitative study of short story in Annida magazine in using speech act. This research aimed to use how the speaker's utter speech acts in various condition met in the magazine. To collect its data, the researcher analysis the short story in Annida magazine. There are some steps to analyze the data: understanding, signalizing and analyzing. The function of these steps is to make easy to analyze speech act in each data.
B.      Data analysis technique
In this research the researcher collected the data through three steeps:
1.       Understanding, this process is started by reading the text short story in Annida Magazine word to word.
2.       Signalizing, after understanding the text, the researcher signalized each speech act. Every speech act were tabulated based on leech's theory.


CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A.      Result
       Chapter four describes the kinds of speech acts founds in kisi rubric " and how do author use speech acts in kisi rubric that is written by different authors at each rubric. As many as eleven rubrics from twenty four editions in a year were selected and analyzed to find out kinds of speech act in short stories and the ways of authors use speech acts in short stories of "Annida" magazine.
1.      Kind of Speech Act Found in Short Stories of an Islamic Magazine "Annida"
After analyzing all texts, it was found that he kinds of speech act in short stories of an Islamic magazine "Annida" are directives, representatives, commissives and expressive. The total Frequency and Percentage  the kinds of speech act in eleven rubrics were shown at the table below :
Kind of speech acts Frequency
Directives 190
Representatives 279
Commissives 7
Expressive 40
Declarative -
Total 516
Table 1 : The Total Frequency and Percentage  the Kinds of Speech Acts
     Table 1 show that only four categories of speech acts used in short stories of "Annida" magazine. They are directives, representatives, commissives and expressive. No declarative is found. The most dominant kinds of speech act are  representatives which the frequency 279 times, then Directives which the frequency 190 times,Expressive which appear 40 times, and Commissives which appear 7 times.
2.      The Use of Speech Acts in Short Stories of "Annida" Magazine
     The result of the analysis shows the function of each category of speech acts. There are five function of representatives : telling, asserting, concluding, suggesting, and explaining. Directives have four function : requesting, questioning, advising, and ordering. Commissives have three function : promising, offering, and theatering. Then expressive have five function : thanking, pardoning, praising, greeting, and expressing.
2.1.Representatives
The function, frequency, and percentage of the kinds of speech act "representatives" can be seen in the following table.
Function Frequency
1.      Telling 212
2.      Asserting 9
3.      Concluding 9
4.      Suggesting 2
5.      Explaining 47
Total 279
Table 2 : Function, Frequency, and Percentage of speech act "Representatives"
      Table 2 show that dominant function of representatives is telling which appears 212 times, the second is explaining  which covering 47 times, the third is asserting which consisting of 9 times, the last is suggesting which covering 2 times. The examples of telling are given below :
      Alf    : " Mr. Bidwell likes boys who stand up as straight as soldier". (text 1)
Dian    : "well, Muslims from all over U. K and sometimes even from France,
                        Holland, and as far as Germany will come to this Annual Summer
                        gathering". (text 1)
   telling may means giving information to someone by speaking or writing or telling about something knows by speaker, we can see in the first example that Alf describes the types    of Mr. Bidwell. It utters may be in a purpose to make listener knows who is Mr. Bidwell.So, if listener meet him, he must stand up us as straight as soldier and must do what Mr. Bidwell likes.
       In the second example, Dian gives information to her friend that Annual Summer Gathering will be presented by Muslims from France, Holland, and Germany in order to make her friend interest to joint to the session.
2.2.Directives
      To know the Function, Frequency and Percentage of the kinds of speech act "Directives" in "kisi" rubric, it can be show in the table 3.
Function Frequency
1.      Requesting 8
2.      Questioning 120
3.      Advising 22
4.      Ordering 40
total 190
                   Table 3 : Function, Frequency and Percentage of speech act "Directives"
Table 3 above shows that in directives, there are five function : Requesting consisting of 8 times, Questioning covering 120 times,Advising consisting of 22 times, and Ordering covering 120 times. So, the most dominant function of speech act is questioning. The example of questioning are given below :
John       : "do you understand the meaning of toddy's question?" (text 2)
Emma : "can I pass this time, john?" (text 2)
The example above are directives functioned as questioning. Questioning means to ask something what we want to know or means speaker utters sentences  asking for information or answer from listener. Commonly the sentences begin by question word and ended by question mark.
The first sentence means speaker wants to know about listener understanding of toddy's question. Author  text 2 forms this sentence begins with the word 'do' indicates yes or no questions. The listener can say yes or no for the answer. In other words, the words yes and no mean the answer in positive and the answer. In other words , the words yes and no mean the answer in positive and the answer in negative.
      In the second sentence may means speaker confuses with her ability to pass the time, implicitly means she feels a torture of doing something. The word 'can' indicates that is be; tonged a questioning.
2.3.Expressive
      The Functions, Frequency, and Percentage of the Kinds of Speech act "Expressive" can be seen in the following table :
Functions Frequency
1.      Thanking 5
2.      Pardoning 4
3.      Praising 5
4.      Greeting 12
5.      Expressing 14
Total 40
Table 4 : Functions, Frequency, and Percentage of speech act "expressive"
      From table 4, we can see that the most domain function of expressive is expressing (it  appears 14 times. Than greeting as the second  domain function covering 12 times,  consisting of 5 times, and last is  pardoning with the frequency 4 times. The example of expressive functioned expressing are given below :
      A Boy : "I'm Afraid john," (text 6)
      A Boy : "I'm Afraid I couldn't resist your influence," (text 11)
      Alex    : "Dian,I was hoping you or going to cafeteria of postbag lounge."
                     (text 11)
      Expressing means expressing desire, thinking or felling : in the first example a boy express his feeling. The sentence may mean he afraid something will happen to him. Then the second sentence shows speaker anxiety for himself toward the influence from someone. The last example means Alex still hopes Dian to go to cafeteria or postage tongue. It's indicated by the words "I was hoping". The verb-ING in 'hoping' express someone's feeling.
      Greeting is used when speaker wants to do greet. Greeting is useful in social relationship between speaker and listener. Speaker uses greeting to begin a conversation. The examples of expressive functioned to greeting are given below:
      A Boy : "good morning, sir!" (text 1)
      A Girl : " Hi, little friend" (text 3)
      Dian    : "Asalamualaikum, Alex" (text 11)
In the first sentence shows us that conversation will happen in the morning. It's indicated by the words ' good morning ". The words "sir" show us that the speaker more young in lower status that listener. The words "Hi, little friend" in the second example indicate that they're close friend. The third example shows us that speaker and listener are Islamic. The age of speaker can be same or more old than listener.
2.4. Commisives
      The Functions, Frequency, and Percentage of the Kinds of Speech act "Commisives" can be seen in the following table :         
Functions Frequency
1.      promising 4
2.      offering 2
3.      theatering 1
Total 7
Table 5 : Functions, Frequency, and Percentage of speech act "Commisives"
      Table 5 shows that in "kisi" rubric, there are three function of commissives. The most dominant is promising with the frequency 4 times (), the second is offering which appears 2 times (), the last is threatening consisting of i times (). The example of commissives functioned to promising are given :
      A Boy              : " I'll never work for a boss  like Mr Bidwell" (text 1)
      Tahseen           : " Insya Allah" (Islamic statement)(text 11)
      Alex                 : "I've promised myself I won't see the library for the whole
                                week' (text 11)
      Promising means speaker makes statement to do something in the future like in the first example, A boy said to someone clearly that he will never work at Mr. Bidwell office. The word 'will' indicates the future sentence from. The word 'will never' shows us the effect of sentences will be done when the sentence is uttered until in the future times.
      The second example belonged to Arabic sentence. 'Insya Allah' means the readiness of speaker to do something in the future.
      The last example may means Alex will not come to the library for the whole week. The words 'I've promised myself' indicates that Alex have promised for himself in the last time before he says the sentences to someone.

B.       Discussion
       As indicated earlier in chapter, the most dominant kind of speech act found in all short stories is representatives. It happens because of one reason that is in dialogues, speaker utters sentences about they have known in order to make listener also know about that. Based on searle in Levinson (1983), representatives commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition such as asserting, concluding. Every dialog used speech act representative. Kind of this speech act appears in all short stories in the sample and make it has the highest frequency that others. Then the second dominant kind of speech act found in all short stories is directives. Searle in Levinson (1985) argues that directives are attempts by the speaker to get the address to do something such as requesting, questioning, in dialogues, speaker and listener make conversation and hey hope respond (can be answer  or an act) from each other. When they express what their intend, they use kinds of speech act directives as the second dominant kind of speech act in the sample.
       The result of the analysis shows that the kind of speech act representatives is dominant by the function of telling. It always appears in every dialogue knows by speaker. It cause to the function of telling be the highest frequency that the others function of kinds of speech act representatives. To indicate telling, author writes this functions not only by using the sentence 'I tell you', but also create it in many ways based on their comprehension in writing and style of their writing. They have chosen the other correct sentence to replace the word 'tell'. Ackley et. Al. (1988) argue that authors choice of words must be appropriate to the audience, to the subject, and to the occasion for which they're writing. Inappropriate words may be wilder the readers and make the purpose of the paragraph unclear. In short, style of authors in presenting their idea through sentences into dialogues make their writing easy to understand and pleasure to read. The stiff words effect to the boredom of the readers.







CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A.      Conclusion
The researcher can conclude that speech act play a great role in short stories of an Islamic magazine "Annida" they were only four kind of speech act found in short story in  magazine "Annida" they are:
1.       Directives
2.       Representatives
3.       Commissives
4.       Expressive
The researcher don't found declarative.
Based on the result it could be seen clearly the using of speech acts are very important to author in order to make their writing pleasure to read.  
B.      Suggestion
For English students, this research can increase to your literature about discourse analysis especially about speech acts and develop your ability to use kinds of speech act in written and spoken.

SKRIPSI BAHASA INGGRIS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS A MARRIAGE PROPOSAL OF SERAWAI TRIBE

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
A MARRIAGE PROPOSAL OF SERAWAI TRIBE

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
            In society has many differences of languages. Language is one of the instrument to make a communication become effective communication. It is depend on where are  the society live. Communication is an important aspect in our daily activity. People will understand meaning based on communication between them. In a community ,they have the rule and way to speak each other. It is influence to their life.
            For example of communication is in the marriage’s day. In serawai tribe their communication when their marriage day is different than another. The communication in marriage day is very important thing.
            Based on explanation above, the researcher interest to investigate a communication in Serawai tribe in a marriage day.
1.2 Research Questions
            a.What is the definition of ethnography of communication?
            b. How about marriage proposal of Serawai tribe?
1.3 Objective of the research
            a. To describe what definition  of ethnography of communication
            b. To describe a marriage proposal of Serawai tribe
1.4 Limitation of the research
            The researcher only investigate communication in a marriage of Serawai tribe.

                                                     CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

            The Ethnography of communication (EOC) is a method of discourse analysis in linguistics, which draws on the anthropological field of ethnography. Unlike ethnography proper, though, it takes both language and culture to be constitutive as well as constructive. In their book Qualitative Communication Research Methods, communications scholars Thomas R. Lindlof and Bryan C. Taylor (2002) explain "Ethnography of communication conceptualizes communication as a continuous flow of information, rather than as a segmented exchange of messages" (p. 44).
            According to Deborah Cameron (2001), EOC can be thought of as the application of ethnographic methods to the communication patterns of a group. Littlejohn & Foss (2005) recall that Dell Hymes suggests that “cultures communicate in different ways, but all forms of communication require a shared code, communicators who know and use the code, a channel, a setting, a message form, a topic, and an event created by transmission of the message" (p. 312).
            EOC can be used as a means by which to study the interactions among members of a specific culture or, what Gerry Philipsen (1975) calls a "speech community." Speech communities create and establish their own speaking codes/norms. Philipsen (1975) explains that “Each community has its own cultural values about speaking and these are linked to judgments of situational appropriateness” (p. 13). The meaning and understanding of the presence or absence of speech within different communities will vary.
            Local cultural patterns and norms must be understood for analysis and interpretation of the appropriateness of speech acts situated within specific communities. Thus, “the statement that talk is not anywhere valued equally in all social contexts suggests a research strategy for discovering and describing cultural or sub cultural differences in the value of speaking. Speaking is one among other symbolic resources which are allocated and distributed in social situations according to distinctive culture patterns” (Philipsen, 1975, p. 21).
            General aims of this qualitative research method include: being able to discern which communication acts and/or codes are important to different groups, what types of meanings groups apply to different communication events, and how group members learn these codes provides insight into particular communities. This additional insight may be used to enhance communication with group members, make sense of group members’ decisions, and distinguish groups from one another, among other things. "ECO studies," according to Lindlof and Taylor (2002), "produce highly detailed analysis of communication codes and their moment-to-moment functions in various contexts. In these analyses, speech communities are constituted in local and continuous performances of cultural and moral matters" (p. 45)
            The aims of the ethnography of communication is to explore the means of speaking available to member of a particular community. This includes the examination of formal, informal and ritual event within a particular group of speaker. The goal of ethnography of communication is to study the communicative competence of a specific speech community.
1. Speech community
            Speech community is a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language. [1] Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized jargon, distinct social groups like high school students or hip hop fans (see also African American Vernacular English), or even tight-knit groups like families and friends. In addition, online and other mediated communities, such as many internet forums, often constitute speech communities. Members of speech communities will often develop slang or jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities.
            Exactly how to define speech community is debated in the literature. Definitions of speech community tend to involve varying degrees of emphasis on the following:
  • Shared community membership
  • Shared linguistic communication
However, the relative importance and exact definitions of these also vary. Some would argue that a speech community must be a 'real' community, i.e. a group of people living in the same location (such as a city or a neighborhood), while more recent thinking proposes that all people are indeed part of several communities (through home location, occupation, gender, class, religious belonging, and more), and that they are thus also part of simultaneous speech communities.
Similarly, what shared linguistic communication entails is also a variable concept. Some would argue that a shared first language, even dialect, is necessary, while for others the ability to communicate and interact (even across language barriers) is sufficient.
The underlying concern in both of these is that members of the same speech community should share linguistic norms. That is, they share understanding, values and attitudes about language varieties present in their community. While the exact definition of speech community is debated, there is a broad consensus that the concept is immensely useful, if not crucial, for the study of language variation and change.
A person can (and almost always does) belong to more than one speech community. For example, a gay Jewish waiter would likely speak and be spoken to differently when interacting with gay peers, Jewish peers, or his co-workers. If he found himself in a situation with a variety of in-group and/or out-group peers, he would likely modify his speech to appeal to speakers of all the speech communities represented at that moment.
            A number of criteria for identifying a speech community have been suggested by researcher in this area, each of which often interact. These include :
·         Shared language use
·         Frequency of interaction by a group of people
·         Shared the rule of speaking and interpretation of speech performance
·         Shared attitudes and values regarding language forms and use
·         Shared sociocultural understanding presuppositions with regard to speech
( Saville- Troike 1989)
2. Communicative Competence
          Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.
The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966,[1] reacting against the perceived inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between competence and performance.[2] To address Chomsky's abstract notion of competence, Hymes undertook ethnographic exploration of communicative competence that included "communicative form and function in integral relation to each other" (Leung, 2005).[3] The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication.
As much as there has already been much debate about linguistic competence and communicative competence in the second and foreign language teaching literature, the outcome has always been the consideration of communicative competence as a superior model of language following Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence. This opposition has been adopted by those who seek new directions toward a communicative era by taking for granted the basic motives and the appropriacy of this opposition behind the development of communicative competence.[4]
            In judging the communicative the effectiveness of an utterance, Hymes (1972) proposed four criteria which are four facets of a speaker’s competence in communication. These are:
1.      Whether the utterance is formally possible ( that is grammatical correct)
2.      Whether the utterance is feasible (that is, manageable in the sense of being neither too long or too complex)
3.      Whether the utterance is appropriate (that is, whether it fits the linguistic and social context)
4.      Whether the utterance is actually done( that is, whether it is a accepted regardless of unorthodox grammar or, for instance, rejected as archaic. Regardless of its perfect grammar).
3. Patterns of Communication       
            Ethnographers are concerned with how communicate events are organized and how they are patterned, as well as how these patterns relate to and derive meaning from the social and cultural setting in which they occur. Communication patterns are modes of communication that we use frequently in certain situations or with certain people. Some patterns may be prevalent, that is, appearing in most communications regardless of the situation, while many are situation-specific, that is, used with certain people (friends, spouse, children, boss) or in certain situations (at work, in conflict, in fear).
            Communication patterns can include all of the following and much more: Apologising frequently,Self-criticism (eg. I'm such an idiot!),Criticism of others,etc
4. Speech events
            Speech event is a set of circumstances in which people interact in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. Hymes describes speech events as often coinciding with what other researchers might term ‘genres’. Speech events, for Hymes are activities that are directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech (1974a:52).Hymes gives stories, conversations, lectures and formal introductions as examples of speech events. In Hymes’s view, speech events should be treated as analytically independently of one another as one of speech event. Or situation for a certain effect.
5. Components of Communicative events
          Components of communicative events in Hymes framework consist of:
·         The setting of the event( including time, place and physical setting)
·         Participant involved in the event ( including persona characteristics such as age, sex, social status, and relationship)
·         The function or purpose of the communicative event ( including the individual goals of participants)
·         The act sequence, or discourse structure, of the communicative event
·         The instrumentalities, or linguistic code, used in the event ( including the language used, the channel of communication, e.g. writing and speaking., and the dialect or variety of the particular language)
·         Norms or sociocultural rules of interaction and interpretation
·         The genre,or type, of communicative event.
Each of these factors interact in the performance of particular communicative events, although some, on occasions, will be more significant than others.

CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1  Research Method
            This research use descriptive method. Descriptive ask about actually happened and terms of observable behavior events and the method to the technique of qualitative data collection but also include establishing a research relation with those you study and analyzing the data our collect. The researcher used this method to describe a marriage proposal of serawai tribe.
3.2  Population and sample
            Population in this research is the Serawai tribe. Sample in this research is Cugung langu village in Seluma regency.
3.3 Technique for  Collecting the Data
          In collecting the data, the researcher use the interview and observation in Cugung langu village. The interview come from Leader of tradition or leader of tribe. They tell the some rule of communication marriage’s day.

         
CHAPTER 4
FINDING AND DISCUSSION

            In Serawai tribe, marriage is a internal contract between  a man and woman. If a someone has been adult, They must married In order to avoid sexual deviations in the situation’s day. Serawai people argue: the aims of marriage is to make a  good and happiness family and based on Islam rules. Almost of Serawai people is Moslem. They live harmonics each other. They are friendly and if someone meet another they take communicate although only say greeting. If one of their familly get marriage, they help each other and mutual understanding. They bring  goods to their family house  like rice, furniture’home, money, fruits, etc.
            Serawai people have a tradition in marriage days, like Bimbang. Bimbang is wedding celebration. In ancient tradition,It’s do for seven days. But now it’s don’t do again, serawai people argue it so long time for wedding celebration. In a marriage day ,before married it do. The man bring antaran. Antaran is important good to bring. Usually, antaran shape like Box. It’s content lemang ( Rice in bamboo) ,serkah sirih( leaf and palm fruits) and money, ten thousand rupiah. A man also bring keris. It’s symbol of male
            In ancient tradition, the place of married at lepau .lepau is like stage and usually it made of tree and coconut leaf. To make it, serawai people do together in one day. For sevenths days wedding celebration event do there. But now, serawai people only make pengujung. Basically, it’s shape same with lepau. But pengujung is smaller than lepau. Its made close of married’s home. Also serawai people do marriage in mosque in the village.
            For more clearly about it. Look at  explanation bellow:
A marriage proposal of Serawai tribe
Genre                     :  a Serawaian ( serawai people) marriage proposal
Topic                      :  proposal of marriage
Function/ purpose : to declare intention to marry and to establish or develop an appropriate role relationship
Setting                 :  May vary but usually in the house, pengujung, and mosque.
Key                         :  serious and quiet
Participants            : male, young adult
                                 Female, young adult
                                 Their occupation and status is not relevant. Not from same or one                                        family. It’s should to from the other area or regency.
                                 Female’s father
Message form       : Not eye gaze spoken, silence
Message content   : father of female says: Usikum ibadallah hiwanafsiyah ya bitqwallah
                              Hi ….i married you with my daughter
                              Male says: I accept your married’s daughter
Act sequence     : 1. Female’s father take male’s hand
                              2. male and father of female look at each other
                              3. male and father of female said married creed
                              4. male and father of female release their hand each other
                             5. the leader of tribe says to audience.” Legal”
Rules for interaction: a man look at eye female’s father carefully. A man must control his                                       emotional when shake hand with female’s father. A man sit parallel                                    with female’ father and his body must sturdy.
Norms of interpretation: marriage is such an important moment in a serawai tribe. When the                                       marriage moment, female only silence. Only her father talk with                                  male.

            The marriage of serawai tribe, actually same with the way married in Indonesia generally, but in serawai tribe it’s influence with their traditions and culture. Before the married begin, male sit in the one side of pengujung. A male sit on  little mattess or ambal. And female and the family sit in front of male. After that their family do madu kulo (deliberation between male and female’s family) When marriage moment ,Male and father’s female sit in sleeping mat. After agreement of married, they pray together.and then eat some foods in the house.


CAHPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

            After  the researcher finishing this paper. The researcher can conclude that, in serawai tribe marriage is very important to do If a person has been adult. In wedding celebration there are many activities to do, is like bimbang, bring goods, bring antaran , etc. It’s very unique and different with another  area.
            The suggestion from the researcher is if we want to do research, we must know the location and purpose of our research clearly, and do by your competence



REFERENCES

 

Paltridge, Brian. 2000. Making Sense of discourse analysis. Australia: gold coast

Yule, George. 1995. Pragmatics. New York: Oxford university

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication











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